YESTERDAY I WENT TO VISIT SONOMA WHERE IT WAS QUITE WARM FOR A WINTER DAY -ABOUT 60 DEGREES. I HAD NOT VISITE GENERAL VALLEJO'S HOUSE AND THE MISSION FOR OVER 10 YEARS.
MARIANO VALLEJO WAS BORN IN MONTERREY IN 1810 FROM A SPANISH FAMILY. BEFORE COMING TO SONOMA HE HAD BEEN A MEXICAN COMMANDATE GENERAL.
THE MISSION SAN FRANCISCO SOLANO WAS BUILT IN 1823 AND CONSECRATED BY FATHER JOSE ALTIMIRA. THIS MISSION WAS BUILT UNDER MEXICAN RULE AND IT IS THE LAST BUILT IN NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. THE MISSION GREW INTO A COMPLEX OF BUILDINGS WITH OVER 10,000 ACRES. IN 1832 THE MISSION HAD ITS MOST PROSPEROUS YEAR WITH 900 INDIAN WORKERS HERE. IT SERVED AS A CHURCH UNTIL 1881 WHEN IT WAS SOLD. TODAY IT IS A HISTORICAL MONUMENT FOR STATE PARKS. IN 1826 INDIAN TROBLES DROVE FATHER ALTIMIRA FROM SONOMA. THEN FATHER FORTUNA CONTINUED TO LEAD THE MISSION. IT HAD ABOUT 21 ROOMS ORIGINALLY, BUT ONLY THREE REMAINED IT WAS BUILT OF THICK ADOBE BRICKS TO KEEP OUT THE COLD IT HAS VIRGIL JORGENSEN'S BEAUTIFUL PAINTINGS OF ALL THE MISSIONS IN CALIFORNIA ALONG THE WALLS OF THE DINING ROOM.
THE CHAPEL WAS BUILT IN 1840 TO 1841 TO REPLACE THE ORIGINAL CHURCH FOR THE MISSION. THE COURTYARD HAS BEEN REPLANTED, HOWEVER IT LOOKED QUITE BARREN IN WINTER WITH SOME CACTI. THE WOMEN'S QUARTERS WERE LOCATED WHERE THE CACTI IS GROWING. THEY HAD A TANNERY, HIDE VATS, VINEYARDS, ORCHARDS, CROPS, AND LIVESTOCK AS WELL. THEY HAVE A PLAQUE THAT HONORD THE INDIANS WHO WORKED HERE AND ARE BURIED IN THE MISSION CEMETERY DURING THE 11 YEARS IT EXISTED.
THE MISSION WAS BUILT HERE AFYTER CLOSING THOSE IN DAN FRANCISCO AND SAN RAFAEL. FATHER DURRICA, THE ADMINISTER OF ALL OF CALIFORNIA MISSIONS,HAD A SOLUTION TO KEEP ALL MISSIONS OPEN BY USING INDIAN LABORERS AS VOLUNTEERS FOR THIS NEW MISSION. THE OUTSIDE AND INSIDE WAS PLASTERED WITH WHITEWASHED MUD. SOME HISPANIC WERE DISCUSSING THIS WITH ME.
THE SONOMA BARRACKS WERE NOT OPEN ON A SUNDAY. THEY WERE ORIGINALLY TWO STORIES TALL. THE BARRACKS WERE COMPLETED IN 1841. IT WAS BUILT TO HOUSE MEXICAN ARMY TROOPS UNDER GENERAL VALLEJO IN 1834. VALLEJO WAS COMMANDER OF THE PRESIDEO AND MOVED HIS GARRISON TO SONOMA. FROM 1834 TO 1846 SONOMA WAS HEADQUARTERS OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE FRONTERA DEL NORTE .
AFTER 1835 OVER 100 EXPEDITIONS SET OUT TO SUBDUE THE THE WAPPOS WHO SEVERAL TIMES WANTED TO OVERTHROW THE MEXICAN DOMINATION IN SONOMA. THE WAPPOS REMAIN STRONG. AFTER THE BEAR FLAG TAKEOVER OF SONOMA IN 1846, THE U.S. FLAG WAS RAISED. ONLY 50 MEN LIVED IN THE BARRACKS. SOMEONE WAS AN IMPORTANT ARMY POST. IT WAS NOT OPEN WHEN I VISITED IT ON SUNDAY.
MARIANO VALLEJO WAS FORMERLY A MEXICAN COMMANDANTE. HIS FIRST HOUSE IN SONOMA WAS BURNT. IN 1850 HE PURCHASED THIS LAND WHERE THERE WAS ONCE A SPRING. THEY HAD SEPARATE BUILDINGS FOR SERVANTS. IN 1851 - 1852 THE HOUSE WAS BUILT AND THEY CALLED IT LACHRYMA MONTIS. IT WAS BUILT IN A STYLE CALLED THE BOSTON HOUSE. THEY HAD A CLOSE BUILDING FOR A KITCHEN. THEY HAD MANY FOLKS VISIT THEM. THE COOK WAS CHINESE AND HE HAD INDIAN WORKERS. HE HAD A GRAND PIANO COME FROM EUROPE. SOME OF THEIR ELEGANT ROSEWOOD FURNITURE ALSO CAME FROM EUROPE. HE AND HIS WIFE FRANCISCA HAD 16 CHILDREN. THEY HAD SEVERAL FIREPLACES HEATED BY COALS. IT WAS MADE IN A GOTHIC STYLE WITH GERMAN LIKE CARVED LATTICE WORK ON THE ROOF. THIS HOUSE IS NOT THAT LARGE. HE PLANTED A VARIETY OF TREES IN HIS PROPERTY WHICH HAD A GOOD SPRING AT THAT TIME. THE TREES INCLUDED OLIVES, APPLES, PEARS, PEACHES, ORANGES, PLUMS, NECTARINES, FIGS, AND LEMON TREES. HE HAD ABOUT 8,000 ACRES OF WINE GRAPES.
THEY HAD A WAREHOUSE BUILT AS WELL FOR STORING FOOD AND WINE. IT WAS BUILT FROM TIMBERS FROM EUROPE AND WAS LINED WITH ADOBE BRICKS. TODAY THIS SWISS CHALET IS THE VISITOR'S CENTER WHICH HAS A RESTORED CARRIAGE FROM FRANCE. THERE WAS A BIG RESERVOIR CONSTRUCTED IN THE EARLY 1850'S TO COLLECT WATER FROM THEIR SPRING. THEY CALLED IT MOUNTAIN TEARS OR LACHRYMA MONTIS IN LATIN. HE LIVED HERE FOR 38 YEARS. TODAY THE POOL HOLDS KOI AND RIVER TURTLES. THE FAMILY HAD OTHER PETS.
DURING VALLEJO'S LIFE HE FOUND TIME TO WRITE MANY VOLUMES OF HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA.
STATE OF CALIFORNIA
Monday, January 30, 2012
WAIWAI INDIANS IN BRAZIL
WAIWAI MEANS TAPIOCA PEOPLE. THEN THEY MADE FRIENDS WITH THEIR PEOPLE AND THEIR NEIGHBORS. THEY ATE A LOT OF TAPIOCA. THEY INTERMARRIED WITH OTHER GROUPS. THEY ADOPTED SOME MISSIONARIES WHO MOVED IN DURING THE 1950'S. THEY ASSIMILATED MORE INTO THEIR GROUPS. THEIR NAME CAME TO INCLUDE THOSE THAT SETTLED IN THE AREA - ABOUT 7 TRIBES. THEY LEARNED THE WAIWAI LANGUAGES.
THEY LIVE IN SMALL REMOTE VILLAGES IN THE TROPICAL FORESTS STRADDLING BOTH SIDES OF THE SERRA ACARAI. THEY ORIGINATED ON THE MAPURA RIVER. BY EARLY 19TH CENTURY THEY MIGRATED NORTHWARD. THEY EXPANDED TRADE AND MARRIAGE CONTACTS. WHEN THE GUIANESE WAIWAI IN 1949 MET MISSIONARIES, THEY ALL RELOCATED NEAR THE MISSIONS. BY THE 1970'S THE MIGRATION REVERSED AND FOLKS RETURNED TO THEIR VILLAGES IN BRAZIL.
BY THE 1950'S ABOUT 200 VISITORS CAME TO THEM. BY 1989 THEY HAD 1200 PEOPLE IN 4 WAIWAI VILLAGES. THE INCREASE WAS BECAUSE OF THEIR ASSIMILATION OF NEARBY TRIBES AND LACK OF CONTACT WITH COLONISTS AND DISEASES. THE MISSIONARIES DISPENSED HEALTH CARE. THEIR BIRTH RATE IS 4% PER YEAR.
EXCHANGE OF GOODS WAS ALREADY ESTIMATED BY 1840 ACCORDING TO R.H. SCHONBURGH. ONLY OCCASIONAL EXPEDITIONS PASSED THROUGH THE REGION BEFORE THE 1950'S. THE WAIWAI POPULATION SWELLED AND MOVED NORTH TO ACCESS NEW TRADE GOODS. THEY BELIEVED A RUMOR THAT A FIRE WOULD DESTROY ALL WHO DID NOT CONVERT TO CHRISTIANITY. THEY PERSUADED GROUPS TO JOIN THEM. IN THE 1970'S THE NEW INDEPENDENT GUYAMESE GOVERNMENT WAS HOSTILE TO U.S. MISSIONARIES. THEY AND MOST OF THE WAIWAI MOVED BACK TO FORMER SITES IN BRAZIL. DURING PRECONTACT TIMES 15 - 50 PEOPLE WERE IN A SINGLE HOUSE. SETTLEMENTS WERE DISPERSED IN A LARGE AREA. AND THEY MOVED EVERY FIVE TO SEVEN YEARS WHEN HOUSES BECAME OLD OR WHEN RESOURCES BECAME DEPLETED. SINCE CONTACT SETTLEMENTS HAVE UNDERGONE SEVERAL CHANGES. THE NUMBER OF HOUSES HAVE DECREASED AS MORE PEOPLE CONCENTRATE IN LARGER VILLAGES. MULTIFAMILY HOUSES HAVE BEEN REPLACED. SINCE CONTACT SETTLEMENT HAVE UNDERGONE SEVERAL CHANGES. THE NUMBER OF VILLAGES HAVE DECREASED AS MORE PEOPLE CONCENTRATE IN LARGER SETTLEMENTS. THE MULTIFAMILY MUMMO WAS REPLACED WITH SMALLER NUCLEAR FAMILY HOUSES. THE FOLKS TRAVEL FARTHER TO NEW GARDENS AND HUNTING AREAS AS THEY DEPLETE RESOURCES.
THEIR RELIGION UNIVERSE IS SAID TO HAVE FIVE TIERS: AN UNDERWORLD, THE EARTH AND THREE HEAVENS. EACH HAS DIFFERENT TIERS AND POWERS THAT THE WAIWAI TRY TO CONTROL. MANY MYTHS RECOUNT THEIR ORIGIN OF CULTURAL PRACTICES, SOCIAL GROUPS, AND NATURAL FEATURES. VARIOUS SPIRITS INHABIT THE FOREST, RIVERS, AND HEAVENS. THEY BELIEVE THESE SPIRITS, ALTHOUGH UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIAN BELIEFS, ARE CONSIDERED POSSIBLY EVIL. THE MISSIONARIES PUT SHAME IN THE WAIWAI, OVER THEIR TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. IN DOING SO MANY WAIWAI HAVE BEEN SUPPRESSED.
THEIR SHAMANS WERE ABLE TO HELP SPIRITS AND USE CURING RITUALS AND SUMMON THE GAME MASTERS. PASTORS TODAY INVOKE A CHRISTA IN GOD IN MUCH THE SAME WAY. TRANSITIONS IN THE LIFE CYCLE WERE MARKED BY SECLUSION AND RITUALS. THEY HAD COLLECTIVE RITUALS AND FERTILITY SPIRITS. TODAY THEY HAVE DANCES AS WELL.
EARLIER SHAMANS CURED ILLNESS THROUGH CONTACT WITH SPIRITS BY USING TOBACCO SMOKE AND SPIRIT STONES. THE WAIWAI DO NOT HAVE AN EXTENSIVE MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE. THEY USE WESTERN MEDICINE BY MISSIONARIES. THEIR HEALTH PROGRAM COSTA ARE LOW .
DEATH IS EXPLAINED BY AS SOUL LOSS OF SPIRITS, DISEASE. AND NEGLECT OF TABOOS. ALL PERSONAL POSSESSIONS ARE DESTROYED TO AVOID CONTACT WITH RESIDORES OF THE SOUL. THEY HAVE WAILING RITUALS. AFTER DEATH SOME PEOPLE REINCARNATE AND THE EYE OF THE SOUL TRAVELS UP TO THE FIRST HEAVEN.
EVERYCULTURE.COM
THEY LIVE IN SMALL REMOTE VILLAGES IN THE TROPICAL FORESTS STRADDLING BOTH SIDES OF THE SERRA ACARAI. THEY ORIGINATED ON THE MAPURA RIVER. BY EARLY 19TH CENTURY THEY MIGRATED NORTHWARD. THEY EXPANDED TRADE AND MARRIAGE CONTACTS. WHEN THE GUIANESE WAIWAI IN 1949 MET MISSIONARIES, THEY ALL RELOCATED NEAR THE MISSIONS. BY THE 1970'S THE MIGRATION REVERSED AND FOLKS RETURNED TO THEIR VILLAGES IN BRAZIL.
BY THE 1950'S ABOUT 200 VISITORS CAME TO THEM. BY 1989 THEY HAD 1200 PEOPLE IN 4 WAIWAI VILLAGES. THE INCREASE WAS BECAUSE OF THEIR ASSIMILATION OF NEARBY TRIBES AND LACK OF CONTACT WITH COLONISTS AND DISEASES. THE MISSIONARIES DISPENSED HEALTH CARE. THEIR BIRTH RATE IS 4% PER YEAR.
EXCHANGE OF GOODS WAS ALREADY ESTIMATED BY 1840 ACCORDING TO R.H. SCHONBURGH. ONLY OCCASIONAL EXPEDITIONS PASSED THROUGH THE REGION BEFORE THE 1950'S. THE WAIWAI POPULATION SWELLED AND MOVED NORTH TO ACCESS NEW TRADE GOODS. THEY BELIEVED A RUMOR THAT A FIRE WOULD DESTROY ALL WHO DID NOT CONVERT TO CHRISTIANITY. THEY PERSUADED GROUPS TO JOIN THEM. IN THE 1970'S THE NEW INDEPENDENT GUYAMESE GOVERNMENT WAS HOSTILE TO U.S. MISSIONARIES. THEY AND MOST OF THE WAIWAI MOVED BACK TO FORMER SITES IN BRAZIL. DURING PRECONTACT TIMES 15 - 50 PEOPLE WERE IN A SINGLE HOUSE. SETTLEMENTS WERE DISPERSED IN A LARGE AREA. AND THEY MOVED EVERY FIVE TO SEVEN YEARS WHEN HOUSES BECAME OLD OR WHEN RESOURCES BECAME DEPLETED. SINCE CONTACT SETTLEMENTS HAVE UNDERGONE SEVERAL CHANGES. THE NUMBER OF HOUSES HAVE DECREASED AS MORE PEOPLE CONCENTRATE IN LARGER VILLAGES. MULTIFAMILY HOUSES HAVE BEEN REPLACED. SINCE CONTACT SETTLEMENT HAVE UNDERGONE SEVERAL CHANGES. THE NUMBER OF VILLAGES HAVE DECREASED AS MORE PEOPLE CONCENTRATE IN LARGER SETTLEMENTS. THE MULTIFAMILY MUMMO WAS REPLACED WITH SMALLER NUCLEAR FAMILY HOUSES. THE FOLKS TRAVEL FARTHER TO NEW GARDENS AND HUNTING AREAS AS THEY DEPLETE RESOURCES.
THEIR RELIGION UNIVERSE IS SAID TO HAVE FIVE TIERS: AN UNDERWORLD, THE EARTH AND THREE HEAVENS. EACH HAS DIFFERENT TIERS AND POWERS THAT THE WAIWAI TRY TO CONTROL. MANY MYTHS RECOUNT THEIR ORIGIN OF CULTURAL PRACTICES, SOCIAL GROUPS, AND NATURAL FEATURES. VARIOUS SPIRITS INHABIT THE FOREST, RIVERS, AND HEAVENS. THEY BELIEVE THESE SPIRITS, ALTHOUGH UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIAN BELIEFS, ARE CONSIDERED POSSIBLY EVIL. THE MISSIONARIES PUT SHAME IN THE WAIWAI, OVER THEIR TRADITIONAL RELIGIOUS BELIEFS. IN DOING SO MANY WAIWAI HAVE BEEN SUPPRESSED.
THEIR SHAMANS WERE ABLE TO HELP SPIRITS AND USE CURING RITUALS AND SUMMON THE GAME MASTERS. PASTORS TODAY INVOKE A CHRISTA IN GOD IN MUCH THE SAME WAY. TRANSITIONS IN THE LIFE CYCLE WERE MARKED BY SECLUSION AND RITUALS. THEY HAD COLLECTIVE RITUALS AND FERTILITY SPIRITS. TODAY THEY HAVE DANCES AS WELL.
EARLIER SHAMANS CURED ILLNESS THROUGH CONTACT WITH SPIRITS BY USING TOBACCO SMOKE AND SPIRIT STONES. THE WAIWAI DO NOT HAVE AN EXTENSIVE MEDICINAL PLANT KNOWLEDGE. THEY USE WESTERN MEDICINE BY MISSIONARIES. THEIR HEALTH PROGRAM COSTA ARE LOW .
DEATH IS EXPLAINED BY AS SOUL LOSS OF SPIRITS, DISEASE. AND NEGLECT OF TABOOS. ALL PERSONAL POSSESSIONS ARE DESTROYED TO AVOID CONTACT WITH RESIDORES OF THE SOUL. THEY HAVE WAILING RITUALS. AFTER DEATH SOME PEOPLE REINCARNATE AND THE EYE OF THE SOUL TRAVELS UP TO THE FIRST HEAVEN.
EVERYCULTURE.COM
TICUNA INDIANS IN BAZIL
THERE ARE 40,O0O FOLKS IN BRAZIL THAT SPEAK THE LANGUAGE. TICUNA COMES FROM TUPI MEN PAINTED BLACK. THEY PAINT THEMSELVES WITH BLACK GENIPAPE JUICE. THEY ARE ON THE LEFT SIDE OF THE AMAZON HEADQUARTERS. THEY ARE ALSO IN PERU,COLOMBIA, AND BRAZIL. IN 1981 THERE WERE ABOUT 15,900 TICUNA!
ACCORDING TO THEIR MYTHS THEY ORIGINATED IN THE EWARE RAVINE NEAR THE COLUMBIAN BORDER. THEIR ENEMIES WERE OMAGUA. THEIR BANKS OF THE PUTUMAYO BY ARAWAK, MARIATE, AND YUMALUA WHO WERE ALMOST EXTINCT. THEY HAVE FRIENDS TO THE WEST - THE PEWBA AND YAGUA. ONCE THE ANGLOS ARRIVED THEY HAD WARS WITH PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH MISSIONARIES AND HAD EPIDEMICS. IN THE LATE 1800'S THEY HAD A WAR WITH PARAGUAY. BY 1900'S RUBBER TAPPING BEGAN AND THE INDIANS WERE THEIR WORKERS. THE RUBBER TAPPERS ARE NOW THE OWNERS OF THE LAND AND THE TICUNA WERE FORCED TO BE RELOCATED. THIS HAS GENERATED UNRESOLVED CONFLICT.
RUBBER TAPPING IS DONE BY COLLECTING FROM A RUBBER TREE. IT DOES NOT HARM THE TREE. THEY MAKE AN INCISION IN THE BARK TO CUT THROUGH THE TREE. THEY MAKE AN INCISION IN THE BARK TO CUT THROUGH THE BARK AND OPTIMIZE LATEX. IT IS ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY.ATTRACTIVE TO THEIR LAND USE. THEY USE 92 TREE SPECIES FOR THIS ECONOMY!
IN 1932 A WAR BETWEEN COLUMBIA AND PERU ERUPTED. THIS CAUSED THEM TO MOVE FROM LEFT TO RIGHT SIDE OF THE AMAZON.
IN THE 1940'S FARMER'S AND CITY DWELLERS BEGAN TO COLONIZE THE AMAZON TRAPEZE. BY 1950 THEY EXPORTED ANIMALS AND HIDES FOR CASH. IN THE 60'S THEY BUILT CHURCHES AND THEN THE AREA HAD SCHOOLS. IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 1970'S TWO TRENDS THAT AFFECTED THE TICUNA WERE: A POPULATION INCREASE AND A CONCENTRATION OF THEIR PEOPLE IN VILLAGES ALONG THE AMAZON.\\THEY USED TO LIVE IN COMMUNAL HOUSES REMOVED FROM EACH OTHER. THEY HAD LARGE HOUSES LATER THE COMMUNAL HOUSES WERE OCCUPIED BY NUCLEAR FAMILIES. LATER NEW COMMUNAL HOUSES WERE OF IN THE AMAZON AREA AND PERIODICALLY INUNDATED BY THE AMAZON RIVER. THESE CHANGES IN THE SETTLEMENT FROM FAMILY HOUSES TO A COMMUNAL HOUSE TRANSFORMED THEIR WAY OF LIFE. THEY LEARNED TO MAKE GOOD CANOES. THEY HAVE NEW TASKS FOR FISHING IN LARGE RIVERS. THEY HAVE ACQUIRED NEW TECHNIQUES FOR CULTIVATING PLANTS. THEIR CONTACT WITH ANGLOS HAS INTENSIFIED. BY THE 1970'S THEY ADOPTED A DIFFERENT SETTLEMENT PATTERN FORMING THEIR VILLAGES. THE ANGLOS BROUGHT IN MORE CATTLE THAT REDUCED LAND FOR HUNTING AND CULTIVATION. TODAY THEIR VILLAGES HAVE ABOUT 70 - 1500 PEOPLE.
THE TICUNA HOUSES HAVE TWO WELL DEFINED SPACES AND LIVING QUARTERS AND A KITCHEN. THEY BUILD THEIR HOUSES ON PLATFORMS TO PROTECT FROM FROM FL;OODS. THEY SLEEP IN MOSQUITO NETTING. THEY REST IN HAMMOCKS DURING THE DAY THEIR CHILDREN SLEEP ON BOARDS OVER TRANSVERSE BEAMS . THEY HAVE AN ANCIENT RELIGION THAT TEACHES THEM THAT THE WORLD IS CONTROLLED BY FORCES AND SPIRITS THAT DETERMINE THE COURSE OF EVENTS. PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH MISSIONARIES ENTERED HERE TO WORK WITH THE TICUNA IN THE FIRST CENTURY. A MAJORITY ARE NOW CATHOLIC. THERE HAS BEEN VARIOUS OTHER MOVEMENTS SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY. TA'E IS THE DIVINITY WHO LIVES IN THE UPPER WORLD AND GIVES THEM THEIR SOULS. THE MOST IMPORTANT BEINGS ARE YOI AND IPI, TWO BROTHER CULTURAL HEROS. THEY CONFRONT SEVERAL DEMONS OF THE INTERMEDIATE WORLD AND THE WORLD BELOW.
PREVIOUSLY THERE WERE SO MANY MORE SHAMANS THAN TODAY. THEY WERE BELIEVED TO BE MORE POWERFUL THAN THOSE TODAY. MAGICAL POWER IS DERIVED FROM THE SHAMAN'S RELATIONSHIP WITH SPIRITS OF TREES. CURING IS DONE BY MEANS OF SUCKING AND TOBACCO SMOKING. SOME CARRY ONVISIBLE THORNS. THEIR MOST IMPORTANT CEREMONY IS HAIR CROPPING. DURING A GIRL'S FIRST MENSES SHE IS ISOLATED SO MEN DON'T SEE HER. A FESTIVAL IS ORGANIZED WHERE THEY DANCE TO CONTINUOUS DRUMS PLAYING. TRIBES OF OTHER GROUPS PLAY AND COME TOGETHERFOR THREE DAYS. SOME OF THE GUESTS DISGUISE THEMSELVES WITH MASKS. THE GIRL COMES OUT , SHE IS ADORNED AND HER HAIR IS CUT, SHE BEGINS HER ADULT LIFE. SONGS ARE SUNG DURING THE FEMALE INITIATION. THEY ARE ABOUT THE MYTHICAL PASSAGES.
THEIR TRADITIONAL MEDICINE HAS DIMINISHED CONSIDERABLY AS WESTERN MEDICAL PRACTICES ARE MORE PREVALENT. THEY DO SOME PURIFICATION RITUALS AS WELL.
SOME PEOPLE ARE IMMORTAL AND GO TO ENCHANTED PLACES WHERE LIFE IS ETERNAL. THE SOULS OF THE MORTALS GOES TO THE WORLD ABOVE. ANOTHER SOUL ROAMS ROAMS AROUND THE HOUSE WHERE THE PERSON DIED.
EVERYCULTURE.COM
wikipedia.org
ACCORDING TO THEIR MYTHS THEY ORIGINATED IN THE EWARE RAVINE NEAR THE COLUMBIAN BORDER. THEIR ENEMIES WERE OMAGUA. THEIR BANKS OF THE PUTUMAYO BY ARAWAK, MARIATE, AND YUMALUA WHO WERE ALMOST EXTINCT. THEY HAVE FRIENDS TO THE WEST - THE PEWBA AND YAGUA. ONCE THE ANGLOS ARRIVED THEY HAD WARS WITH PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH MISSIONARIES AND HAD EPIDEMICS. IN THE LATE 1800'S THEY HAD A WAR WITH PARAGUAY. BY 1900'S RUBBER TAPPING BEGAN AND THE INDIANS WERE THEIR WORKERS. THE RUBBER TAPPERS ARE NOW THE OWNERS OF THE LAND AND THE TICUNA WERE FORCED TO BE RELOCATED. THIS HAS GENERATED UNRESOLVED CONFLICT.
RUBBER TAPPING IS DONE BY COLLECTING FROM A RUBBER TREE. IT DOES NOT HARM THE TREE. THEY MAKE AN INCISION IN THE BARK TO CUT THROUGH THE TREE. THEY MAKE AN INCISION IN THE BARK TO CUT THROUGH THE BARK AND OPTIMIZE LATEX. IT IS ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY.ATTRACTIVE TO THEIR LAND USE. THEY USE 92 TREE SPECIES FOR THIS ECONOMY!
IN 1932 A WAR BETWEEN COLUMBIA AND PERU ERUPTED. THIS CAUSED THEM TO MOVE FROM LEFT TO RIGHT SIDE OF THE AMAZON.
IN THE 1940'S FARMER'S AND CITY DWELLERS BEGAN TO COLONIZE THE AMAZON TRAPEZE. BY 1950 THEY EXPORTED ANIMALS AND HIDES FOR CASH. IN THE 60'S THEY BUILT CHURCHES AND THEN THE AREA HAD SCHOOLS. IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE 1970'S TWO TRENDS THAT AFFECTED THE TICUNA WERE: A POPULATION INCREASE AND A CONCENTRATION OF THEIR PEOPLE IN VILLAGES ALONG THE AMAZON.\\THEY USED TO LIVE IN COMMUNAL HOUSES REMOVED FROM EACH OTHER. THEY HAD LARGE HOUSES LATER THE COMMUNAL HOUSES WERE OCCUPIED BY NUCLEAR FAMILIES. LATER NEW COMMUNAL HOUSES WERE OF IN THE AMAZON AREA AND PERIODICALLY INUNDATED BY THE AMAZON RIVER. THESE CHANGES IN THE SETTLEMENT FROM FAMILY HOUSES TO A COMMUNAL HOUSE TRANSFORMED THEIR WAY OF LIFE. THEY LEARNED TO MAKE GOOD CANOES. THEY HAVE NEW TASKS FOR FISHING IN LARGE RIVERS. THEY HAVE ACQUIRED NEW TECHNIQUES FOR CULTIVATING PLANTS. THEIR CONTACT WITH ANGLOS HAS INTENSIFIED. BY THE 1970'S THEY ADOPTED A DIFFERENT SETTLEMENT PATTERN FORMING THEIR VILLAGES. THE ANGLOS BROUGHT IN MORE CATTLE THAT REDUCED LAND FOR HUNTING AND CULTIVATION. TODAY THEIR VILLAGES HAVE ABOUT 70 - 1500 PEOPLE.
THE TICUNA HOUSES HAVE TWO WELL DEFINED SPACES AND LIVING QUARTERS AND A KITCHEN. THEY BUILD THEIR HOUSES ON PLATFORMS TO PROTECT FROM FROM FL;OODS. THEY SLEEP IN MOSQUITO NETTING. THEY REST IN HAMMOCKS DURING THE DAY THEIR CHILDREN SLEEP ON BOARDS OVER TRANSVERSE BEAMS . THEY HAVE AN ANCIENT RELIGION THAT TEACHES THEM THAT THE WORLD IS CONTROLLED BY FORCES AND SPIRITS THAT DETERMINE THE COURSE OF EVENTS. PORTUGUESE AND SPANISH MISSIONARIES ENTERED HERE TO WORK WITH THE TICUNA IN THE FIRST CENTURY. A MAJORITY ARE NOW CATHOLIC. THERE HAS BEEN VARIOUS OTHER MOVEMENTS SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY. TA'E IS THE DIVINITY WHO LIVES IN THE UPPER WORLD AND GIVES THEM THEIR SOULS. THE MOST IMPORTANT BEINGS ARE YOI AND IPI, TWO BROTHER CULTURAL HEROS. THEY CONFRONT SEVERAL DEMONS OF THE INTERMEDIATE WORLD AND THE WORLD BELOW.
PREVIOUSLY THERE WERE SO MANY MORE SHAMANS THAN TODAY. THEY WERE BELIEVED TO BE MORE POWERFUL THAN THOSE TODAY. MAGICAL POWER IS DERIVED FROM THE SHAMAN'S RELATIONSHIP WITH SPIRITS OF TREES. CURING IS DONE BY MEANS OF SUCKING AND TOBACCO SMOKING. SOME CARRY ONVISIBLE THORNS. THEIR MOST IMPORTANT CEREMONY IS HAIR CROPPING. DURING A GIRL'S FIRST MENSES SHE IS ISOLATED SO MEN DON'T SEE HER. A FESTIVAL IS ORGANIZED WHERE THEY DANCE TO CONTINUOUS DRUMS PLAYING. TRIBES OF OTHER GROUPS PLAY AND COME TOGETHERFOR THREE DAYS. SOME OF THE GUESTS DISGUISE THEMSELVES WITH MASKS. THE GIRL COMES OUT , SHE IS ADORNED AND HER HAIR IS CUT, SHE BEGINS HER ADULT LIFE. SONGS ARE SUNG DURING THE FEMALE INITIATION. THEY ARE ABOUT THE MYTHICAL PASSAGES.
THEIR TRADITIONAL MEDICINE HAS DIMINISHED CONSIDERABLY AS WESTERN MEDICAL PRACTICES ARE MORE PREVALENT. THEY DO SOME PURIFICATION RITUALS AS WELL.
SOME PEOPLE ARE IMMORTAL AND GO TO ENCHANTED PLACES WHERE LIFE IS ETERNAL. THE SOULS OF THE MORTALS GOES TO THE WORLD ABOVE. ANOTHER SOUL ROAMS ROAMS AROUND THE HOUSE WHERE THE PERSON DIED.
EVERYCULTURE.COM
wikipedia.org
Thursday, January 26, 2012
PETRIFIED FOREST NEAR CALISTOGA
THE PETRIFIED FOREST IS IN NAPA COUNTY HIGH IN ELEVATION AND ON THE WAY TO CALISTOGA. THE PETRIFIED REDWOOD TREES DATE 3 MILLION YEARS OLD. THESE TREES WERE BURIED FROM THE ASH THAT CAME FROM AN ACTIVE VOLCANO OF MT. SAINT HELENA MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO. SILICA REPLACED THE WOOD AND TURNED IT INTO QUARTZ AND SOLID STONE. THE PETRIFIED REDWOOD TREES DATE TO 3 MILLION YEARS OLD. THESE TREES WERE BURIED FROM ASH FROM AN ACTIVE VOLCANO OF MOUNT SAINT HELENA MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO. SILICA REPLACED THE WOOD AND TURNED IT INTO QUARTZ AND SOLID STONE. MANY OF THE OAK TREES ARE OVER 400 YEARS OLD HERE. BESIDES PETRIFIED REDWOODS THERE IS PIT PINE TREE. ONE TREE WAS 2000 YEARS OLD WHEN IT FELL. THE FOREST WAS DISCOVERED BY WILLIAM TRAVERSE IN 1857. THE MUSEUM IS FUN TO VISIT. MY FAMILY AS WELL AS MY MOM IN A WHEELCHAIR VISITED THIS NATURAL WONDER OF AN ANCIENT FOREST. IT HAS MANY UNUSUAL FEATURES AND SOME FOLKS HAVE CARVED AN INDIAN HEAD OUT OF LAVA.
WWW.PETRIFIEDFOREST.COM
WWW.PETRIFIEDFOREST.COM
TERENA INDIANS IN BRAZIL
TH3E TERENA LIVE IN THE NORTHEAST PARAGUAY . AT PRESENT THE TERENA ARE LOCATED ALMOST ENTIRELY IN CITIES OF MIRANDA AND AQUIDANA IN THE BRAZIL. THEY LIVE IN A TROPICAL FOREST. THE TERENA ARE SOME KIND OF BRAZILIANS WHO HAVE INCREASED THEIR POPULATION. IN 1840'S ABOUT 3800 MIGRATED INTO BRAZILIAN TERRITORY AND THEY HAD ABOUT 300O FOLKS. BY MID 1800'S THEIR VILLAGE WAS 12,000. UNTIL THE 1950'S THE INFECTIOUS DISEASES WERE TUBERCULOSIS WHICH CAUSED DEATH. TODAY THEY HAVE CHRONIC DEGENERATIVE CAUSES. THEIR CHILDREN HAVE RESPIRATORY DISEASES. THEY SPEAK ARAWAK.
THEY PRIMARILY CULTIVATE AND MAINTAIN A VASSALAGE OF RELATION WITH PARGUAYAN CHACO. THEY GAVE THEM FOOD AND TEXTILES AND RECEIVED KNIVES, AXES AND PROTECTION. THEY HAD CONFLICTS WITH COLONIAL POWERS,AND THE GUANA MIGRATED TO BRAZILIAN TERRITORY. TWO OF THEIR SUBGROUPS DISAPPEARRED. THE KINKINAW WERE GROWING CROPS IN CHACO 0R SELLING FOOD AND TEXTILES TO NON INDIANS. IN 1860'S THE TERENA FOUGHT WITH BRAZILIAN TROOPS AGAINST PARAGUAY. THE TERENA VILLAGES LAY IN RUINS AND POPULATION WAS DISPERSED TO THE REGION'S FARMS. THEY WORKED UNDER QUASI SLAVERY CONDITIONS. IN THE 20TH CENTURY THEY GOT ON RESERVATIONS SO THEY COULD REGROUP AGAIN.
THEY GREW MANY DIFFERENT CROPS AND RAISED POULTRY. CATTLE AND HORSES WERE RAISED. FOOD GATHERING WAS DONE ON A REGULAR BASIS WAS DONE ON A REGULAR BASIS. MANY MEN WORK ON ALCOHOL MILLS FOR PERIODS FOR PERIODS OF UP TO 89 DAYS/ THEY LIVE AWAY FROM THE VILLAGE.
THEY MAKE POTTERY, BASKETS, WEAVINGS AND THEY SPIN COTTON FOR HAMMOCKS AND BELTS. THEY MAKE CERAMIC KITCHEN UTENSILS. THEY HAVE SOME GOLD CRAFTERS.
THEY TRADE MUCH OF THEIR PRODUCE WITH NEIGHBORS. THEIR LAND WAS USED IN THREE WAYS...INDIVIDUAL FAMILY AND COLLECTIVE FARMING. THEIR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS TEND TO BE FOR CASH FARMING THAT ARE ORIENTED TOWARD SUBSISTENCE FARMING.
THEIR RELIGION WAS ORIENTED TO SHAMANISM. ACCORDING TO THEIR CONCEPTION OF OTHER WORLD, ALL HUMANS, ANIMALS AND PLANT BEINGS POSSESS A SOUL THAT SURVIVES AFTER DEATH. NATURAL SOURCES INHABIT THE SYMBOLICAL UNIVERSE OF THE TERENA. AN IMPORTANT MYTH IS THAT OF YIRIKOYUVAKAI, THE CIVILIZING TWIN HERO. THEY GAVE THE TERENA THEIR TOOLS. IT IS THIS MYTH THAT JUSTIFIES THE DIVISION. IT IS THIS MYTH THAT JUSTIFIES THE DIVISION IN CEREMONIAL HALVES.
THE SHAMAN WAS THE MAIN FIGURE IN ACTIVITIES CONNECTED WITH THE SUPERNATURAL WORLD. A PERSON BECAME A SHAMAN AFTER A REVELATION OR AFTER BEING SELECTED BY KIN. SOME SHAMANS COMBINE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS WITH CHRISTIANITY.
THEY HAVE A GREAT FEAST OF TERENA WHICH INCLUDES BOTH SACRED AS WELL AS PROFANE RITUALS. THE CEREMONYBEGAN WITH RITUALS AND INCLUDED GAMES. IT IS HELD IN ONLY A FEW VILLAGES TODAY.
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THEY PRIMARILY CULTIVATE AND MAINTAIN A VASSALAGE OF RELATION WITH PARGUAYAN CHACO. THEY GAVE THEM FOOD AND TEXTILES AND RECEIVED KNIVES, AXES AND PROTECTION. THEY HAD CONFLICTS WITH COLONIAL POWERS,AND THE GUANA MIGRATED TO BRAZILIAN TERRITORY. TWO OF THEIR SUBGROUPS DISAPPEARRED. THE KINKINAW WERE GROWING CROPS IN CHACO 0R SELLING FOOD AND TEXTILES TO NON INDIANS. IN 1860'S THE TERENA FOUGHT WITH BRAZILIAN TROOPS AGAINST PARAGUAY. THE TERENA VILLAGES LAY IN RUINS AND POPULATION WAS DISPERSED TO THE REGION'S FARMS. THEY WORKED UNDER QUASI SLAVERY CONDITIONS. IN THE 20TH CENTURY THEY GOT ON RESERVATIONS SO THEY COULD REGROUP AGAIN.
THEY GREW MANY DIFFERENT CROPS AND RAISED POULTRY. CATTLE AND HORSES WERE RAISED. FOOD GATHERING WAS DONE ON A REGULAR BASIS WAS DONE ON A REGULAR BASIS. MANY MEN WORK ON ALCOHOL MILLS FOR PERIODS FOR PERIODS OF UP TO 89 DAYS/ THEY LIVE AWAY FROM THE VILLAGE.
THEY MAKE POTTERY, BASKETS, WEAVINGS AND THEY SPIN COTTON FOR HAMMOCKS AND BELTS. THEY MAKE CERAMIC KITCHEN UTENSILS. THEY HAVE SOME GOLD CRAFTERS.
THEY TRADE MUCH OF THEIR PRODUCE WITH NEIGHBORS. THEIR LAND WAS USED IN THREE WAYS...INDIVIDUAL FAMILY AND COLLECTIVE FARMING. THEIR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS TEND TO BE FOR CASH FARMING THAT ARE ORIENTED TOWARD SUBSISTENCE FARMING.
THEIR RELIGION WAS ORIENTED TO SHAMANISM. ACCORDING TO THEIR CONCEPTION OF OTHER WORLD, ALL HUMANS, ANIMALS AND PLANT BEINGS POSSESS A SOUL THAT SURVIVES AFTER DEATH. NATURAL SOURCES INHABIT THE SYMBOLICAL UNIVERSE OF THE TERENA. AN IMPORTANT MYTH IS THAT OF YIRIKOYUVAKAI, THE CIVILIZING TWIN HERO. THEY GAVE THE TERENA THEIR TOOLS. IT IS THIS MYTH THAT JUSTIFIES THE DIVISION. IT IS THIS MYTH THAT JUSTIFIES THE DIVISION IN CEREMONIAL HALVES.
THE SHAMAN WAS THE MAIN FIGURE IN ACTIVITIES CONNECTED WITH THE SUPERNATURAL WORLD. A PERSON BECAME A SHAMAN AFTER A REVELATION OR AFTER BEING SELECTED BY KIN. SOME SHAMANS COMBINE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS WITH CHRISTIANITY.
THEY HAVE A GREAT FEAST OF TERENA WHICH INCLUDES BOTH SACRED AS WELL AS PROFANE RITUALS. THE CEREMONYBEGAN WITH RITUALS AND INCLUDED GAMES. IT IS HELD IN ONLY A FEW VILLAGES TODAY.
EVERYCULTURE.COM
Wednesday, January 25, 2012
SHARANAOA INDIANS IN BRAZIL
THEY LIVE IN THE AREA OF THE UPPER REACHES OF THE RIO PURUS PRIMARILY IN PERU AND SOME IN BRAZIL. THERE ARE MANY SUBTRIBES. THE POPULATION OF ALL OF THESE MIXED CULTURES IS ESTIMATED AT 1800. THEY SPEAK PANOIAN.
THEY FLED A PERUVIAN TO THE RIO CURANJA IN ABOUT 1955. THEY LEFT THE CURANJA AFTER A MEASLES EPIDEMIC AND REACHED THEIR CURRENT LANDS IN 1940'S. THEN THEY HAD AN EPIDEMIC TO THE FLU, AND MEASLES. THEIR POPULATION DROPPED . THEY BELIEVED THESE EPIDEMICS WERE CAUSED BY PERUVIAN BOMBS. THE STRANGERS DID NOT ACQUIRE TECHNOLOGY TO MAKE CANOES AND FISHING NETS UNTIL THE 1960'S. SINCE THEN A FEW SHARANAHUA HAVE BECOME MIGRANT LABORERS TO GET GOODS AND CASH. THEY TRADED WITH MERCHANTS AND EXCHANGE ANIMAL SKINS FOR GUNS, POTS, RUM , CLOTHING AND FLASHLIGHTS. THEY SELL SKINS AND TURTLE EGGS DOWN RIVER. THEY WOULD KILL A TRADER WHEN HE CHEATED THEM. THEY REFUSED TO PAY DEBTS AGAINST THE VALUE OF SKINS. UNTIL THE 1940'S AND 1950'S THEIR GARDENING WAS DONE IN THE UPLAND GARDENS. WHEN THEY MOVE TO THE RIO PURUS AT ABOUT THAT TIME THEY GREW CROPS ON THE FLOOD PLAIN.
IN THE SPRING WOMEN RAISE FAST MATURING MAIZE, WATERMELONS, PEANUTS, FOR THE FALL RAINS. MEN GROW BANANAS, PLAINTAINS, AND SUGARCANE IN THE FLOODPLAINS. THEIR GARDENS PRODUCE 60% OF SHARANAHUA FOODS.
WOMEN GATHER VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND FUNGI FROM THE FOREST AND TAKE SHRIMP AND FISH FROM THE WATER LOGGED BAMBOO. THE MEN HUNT GAME, BUT MORE CATCH BIRDS OR MONKEYS FOR FOOD. HUNTING IS THEIR MAIN JOB OF OLDER MEN AND BOYS. THE MEAT IS ABOUT 30% OF THEIR DIET. THEY USE A POISON TO CATCH AND STUN THEIR FISH AND MEN SPEAR THEM.
THEIR VILLAGE IS SMALL AND LESS THAN 2000 PEOPLE. THEY BUILD THEIR HOUSES IN A LINE. THEY ARE ON POSTS ABOVE GROUND AND HAVE THATCHED ROOFS AND OFTEN HAVE BARK WALLS.
THEIR ELEVATION FROM THE GROUND PROTECTS THEM FROM RAIN AND IS A BARRIER TO THE DOGS AND CHICKENS.THEY HAVE A SEPARATE HAVE A SEPARATE COOK HOUSE. THEY SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IS BASED ON SISTER EXCHANGE. THEY INTERMARRY WITH DESCENT GROUPS. THEY LIVE WITH THEIR MOTHERS'S FAMILY.
EVERYCULTURE .COM
A
ATTACK
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THEY MIGRATED
TO THE RIO
THEY FLED A PERUVIAN TO THE RIO CURANJA IN ABOUT 1955. THEY LEFT THE CURANJA AFTER A MEASLES EPIDEMIC AND REACHED THEIR CURRENT LANDS IN 1940'S. THEN THEY HAD AN EPIDEMIC TO THE FLU, AND MEASLES. THEIR POPULATION DROPPED . THEY BELIEVED THESE EPIDEMICS WERE CAUSED BY PERUVIAN BOMBS. THE STRANGERS DID NOT ACQUIRE TECHNOLOGY TO MAKE CANOES AND FISHING NETS UNTIL THE 1960'S. SINCE THEN A FEW SHARANAHUA HAVE BECOME MIGRANT LABORERS TO GET GOODS AND CASH. THEY TRADED WITH MERCHANTS AND EXCHANGE ANIMAL SKINS FOR GUNS, POTS, RUM , CLOTHING AND FLASHLIGHTS. THEY SELL SKINS AND TURTLE EGGS DOWN RIVER. THEY WOULD KILL A TRADER WHEN HE CHEATED THEM. THEY REFUSED TO PAY DEBTS AGAINST THE VALUE OF SKINS. UNTIL THE 1940'S AND 1950'S THEIR GARDENING WAS DONE IN THE UPLAND GARDENS. WHEN THEY MOVE TO THE RIO PURUS AT ABOUT THAT TIME THEY GREW CROPS ON THE FLOOD PLAIN.
IN THE SPRING WOMEN RAISE FAST MATURING MAIZE, WATERMELONS, PEANUTS, FOR THE FALL RAINS. MEN GROW BANANAS, PLAINTAINS, AND SUGARCANE IN THE FLOODPLAINS. THEIR GARDENS PRODUCE 60% OF SHARANAHUA FOODS.
WOMEN GATHER VEGETABLES, FRUITS, AND FUNGI FROM THE FOREST AND TAKE SHRIMP AND FISH FROM THE WATER LOGGED BAMBOO. THE MEN HUNT GAME, BUT MORE CATCH BIRDS OR MONKEYS FOR FOOD. HUNTING IS THEIR MAIN JOB OF OLDER MEN AND BOYS. THE MEAT IS ABOUT 30% OF THEIR DIET. THEY USE A POISON TO CATCH AND STUN THEIR FISH AND MEN SPEAR THEM.
THEIR VILLAGE IS SMALL AND LESS THAN 2000 PEOPLE. THEY BUILD THEIR HOUSES IN A LINE. THEY ARE ON POSTS ABOVE GROUND AND HAVE THATCHED ROOFS AND OFTEN HAVE BARK WALLS.
THEIR ELEVATION FROM THE GROUND PROTECTS THEM FROM RAIN AND IS A BARRIER TO THE DOGS AND CHICKENS.THEY HAVE A SEPARATE HAVE A SEPARATE COOK HOUSE. THEY SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IS BASED ON SISTER EXCHANGE. THEY INTERMARRY WITH DESCENT GROUPS. THEY LIVE WITH THEIR MOTHERS'S FAMILY.
EVERYCULTURE .COM
A
ATTACK
.
THEY MIGRATED
TO THE RIO
PEMON TRIBE IN BRAZIL
THE PEMON MEANS PEOPLE. AREKUNA IS USED BY THE PEMON. THE FOLKS LIVING IN THE VALLEY OF KAMARATA ARE CALLED KAMARAKOTO. IN THE LATE 1970'S PEMON WERE IN VENEZULA AND THEY NUMBERED ABOUT 8000. THEIR GROWTH RATES HAVE INCREASED.
ALL OF THEIR NEIGHBORS MAKE FRIENDS WITH EACH OTHER. BY THE MID 1800'S THEY HAD SPANISH MISSIONARIES IN THE CARONI REGION AND RAIDED AMONG SETTLEMENTS. DURING THE LATER HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY THEY HAD NO EXTENSIVE WARFARE.
THEY HAVE MOUNTAINS ON ALL SIDES. THE ISABUREO RIVERS WERE USED BY THE PEMON AND SPANISH MISSIONS. BY 1817 THEY COLLAPSED. THE MOUNTAINS PROTECTED FROM EXTENSIVE INCURSIONS UNTIL THE 20TH CENTURY. DIRECT CONTINUOUS CONTACTS BETWEEN PEMON AND ANGLOS WERE MINIMAL. DIAMOD MINING HAS BEEN A STRONG AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE SINCE 1945. VENEZUELA GOVERNMENTS PRESENCE INCREASED SUBSTANTIALLY IN THE SANTA ELENA AREA ON THE BORDER OF BRAZIL. ROAD PENETRATION DATES FROM THE EARLY 1970'S. IN THE 1990'S THE MOST PRESSING ISSUE WAS LAND ENTITLEMENT.
THEIR SETTLEMENTS RANGE FROM A SINGLE FAMILY TO A MAXIMUMOF 6 OR 7 FAMILIES. THEY PREFERED LOCATE HOUSES IN OPEN SAVANANAH BY STREAMS. THEY HAVE A ROUND HOUSE FOR LARGER CEREMONIAL CENTERS AND THEY DRAW LARGE GROUPS OF PEOPLE.
PEMON DWELLINGS MAY BE OBLONG OR ROUND, OR RECTANGULAR. THEY HAVE A NUCLEAR OR ETENDED FAMILY. THE HOUSES ARE OF MUD OR SLATTED WALLS WITH THATCHED ROOFS. THEY ARE OPEN AND UNDIVIDED INSIDE. THEY ARE MISSION TYPE.
THESE FOLKS ARE SLASH AND BURN CULTIVATORS, FISHERS, HUNTERS, AND GATHERES OF WILD FRUIT. THEY GROW MANIOC, PEPPERS, AND A LEAF VEGETABLE. THESE ARE THEIR MAIN DIET. THESE ARE THEIR MAIN DIET. YAMS, CORN, PUMPKINS, AND PLAINTAINS ARE ALSO GROWN. THEY EAT A LOT OF FISH.TODAY THEY USE SHOTGUNS TO HUNT TAPIR, DEER, PECCARIES, PACAS, AND BIRDS. GOURDS ARE RAISED AND USED ALONG WITH FOOD CROPS AND FOR MANIOC - BEER CONTAINERS. THEY MAKE MONEY IN DIAMOND DIGGING.
THEY MAKE DECOATED BASKETRY CLAY BOWLS, WOODEN DUGOUT AND BARK CANOES, AND PADDLES AND HAMMOCKS. THEY HAVE AN EXTENSIVE AND LONG DISTANCE TRADE NETWORK.THEY HAVE AN EXTENSIVE LONG TRADE NETWORK WITH LINKS WITH NEIGHBORING TRIBES. MANY ITEMS THEY TRADE WITH OUT CASH AND THEY KEEP ALL PEMON IN THE TRADE NETWORK THAT WAY.
EACH FAMILY HAS USAGE RIGHTS TO THE FIELDS IT CULTIVATES. WHEN THE FIELDS GO FALLOWTHE LAND REVERTS TO THE COMMUNITY.
NUCLEAR FAMILIES REVAIL WITH 2 - 3 GENERATIONS OF EXTENDED FAMILIES BUILD GENERATIONS OF EXTENDED FAMILIES BUILD UP AS SONS IN LAW MARRY IN OR BRING THEIR WIVES BAACK HOME AFTER BRIDE SERVICE.
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ALL OF THEIR NEIGHBORS MAKE FRIENDS WITH EACH OTHER. BY THE MID 1800'S THEY HAD SPANISH MISSIONARIES IN THE CARONI REGION AND RAIDED AMONG SETTLEMENTS. DURING THE LATER HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY THEY HAD NO EXTENSIVE WARFARE.
THEY HAVE MOUNTAINS ON ALL SIDES. THE ISABUREO RIVERS WERE USED BY THE PEMON AND SPANISH MISSIONS. BY 1817 THEY COLLAPSED. THE MOUNTAINS PROTECTED FROM EXTENSIVE INCURSIONS UNTIL THE 20TH CENTURY. DIRECT CONTINUOUS CONTACTS BETWEEN PEMON AND ANGLOS WERE MINIMAL. DIAMOD MINING HAS BEEN A STRONG AND SOCIAL INFLUENCE SINCE 1945. VENEZUELA GOVERNMENTS PRESENCE INCREASED SUBSTANTIALLY IN THE SANTA ELENA AREA ON THE BORDER OF BRAZIL. ROAD PENETRATION DATES FROM THE EARLY 1970'S. IN THE 1990'S THE MOST PRESSING ISSUE WAS LAND ENTITLEMENT.
THEIR SETTLEMENTS RANGE FROM A SINGLE FAMILY TO A MAXIMUMOF 6 OR 7 FAMILIES. THEY PREFERED LOCATE HOUSES IN OPEN SAVANANAH BY STREAMS. THEY HAVE A ROUND HOUSE FOR LARGER CEREMONIAL CENTERS AND THEY DRAW LARGE GROUPS OF PEOPLE.
PEMON DWELLINGS MAY BE OBLONG OR ROUND, OR RECTANGULAR. THEY HAVE A NUCLEAR OR ETENDED FAMILY. THE HOUSES ARE OF MUD OR SLATTED WALLS WITH THATCHED ROOFS. THEY ARE OPEN AND UNDIVIDED INSIDE. THEY ARE MISSION TYPE.
THESE FOLKS ARE SLASH AND BURN CULTIVATORS, FISHERS, HUNTERS, AND GATHERES OF WILD FRUIT. THEY GROW MANIOC, PEPPERS, AND A LEAF VEGETABLE. THESE ARE THEIR MAIN DIET. THESE ARE THEIR MAIN DIET. YAMS, CORN, PUMPKINS, AND PLAINTAINS ARE ALSO GROWN. THEY EAT A LOT OF FISH.TODAY THEY USE SHOTGUNS TO HUNT TAPIR, DEER, PECCARIES, PACAS, AND BIRDS. GOURDS ARE RAISED AND USED ALONG WITH FOOD CROPS AND FOR MANIOC - BEER CONTAINERS. THEY MAKE MONEY IN DIAMOND DIGGING.
THEY MAKE DECOATED BASKETRY CLAY BOWLS, WOODEN DUGOUT AND BARK CANOES, AND PADDLES AND HAMMOCKS. THEY HAVE AN EXTENSIVE AND LONG DISTANCE TRADE NETWORK.THEY HAVE AN EXTENSIVE LONG TRADE NETWORK WITH LINKS WITH NEIGHBORING TRIBES. MANY ITEMS THEY TRADE WITH OUT CASH AND THEY KEEP ALL PEMON IN THE TRADE NETWORK THAT WAY.
EACH FAMILY HAS USAGE RIGHTS TO THE FIELDS IT CULTIVATES. WHEN THE FIELDS GO FALLOWTHE LAND REVERTS TO THE COMMUNITY.
NUCLEAR FAMILIES REVAIL WITH 2 - 3 GENERATIONS OF EXTENDED FAMILIES BUILD GENERATIONS OF EXTENDED FAMILIES BUILD UP AS SONS IN LAW MARRY IN OR BRING THEIR WIVES BAACK HOME AFTER BRIDE SERVICE.
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ARE
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